Before 1933, German universities (Berlin, Göttingen, Munich) held global hegemony in science. German-speaking researchers won over a third of Nobel Prizes in physics, chemistry, and medicine from 1901–1932. The Humboldtian model of research universities, emphasizing seminars, labs, and academic freedom, produced breakthroughs: quantum mechanics (Planck, Heisenberg), relativity (Einstein), chemistry (Haber-Bosch process for fertilizers and explosives), … Continue reading Pushed by Old World limits. Pulled by New World promise.