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Chapel Construction Timelapse

Sacred Spaces

The University Campus As A Designed Work and an Artefact of Cultural Heritage

The University Campus in the United States—As a Designed Work to Produce Knowledge; and as an Artefact of Cultural Heritage

Paul Hardin Kapp
School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States

ABSTRACT: The university campus in the United States is a unique architectural and landscape architecture typology. Nothing like it existed until Harvard University was established in 1638. Invented during in the 17th century by the American colonists and later developed during the American Industrial Revolution, the American campus is a community devoted to teaching and generating knowledge. It can be urban, suburban, and/or rural in form and its planning directly correlates with a university’s research mission and the pedagogy of the American university system. Its buildings and landscapes are embedded with iconography, which the founding builders used to convey their values to future generations.

This paper presents the history of how this designed work first emerged in American society and then evolved in ways that responded to changes that occurred in America. At the end of the 20th century, universities conserved parts of them as cultural heritage monuments. Originally, the university campus was built to disseminate a classical education, but later, the campus was built for technical and agricultural education. By the beginning of the 20th century, professional education and sport changed its architecture and landscape. The paper briely discusses that while it has inspired how universities are built to teach and generate knowledge throughout the world. It concludes by reairming its value to cultural heritage and that it should be conserved.

Illinois

Inside The Safest School In America

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School Safety: Indiana

Indiana School Safety Hub

Reference Guide of Indiana Laws Related to School Safety

Standards Indiana

Trowel Trades

Bricklayers, sometimes known as masons, are skilled craftsmen that must be physically fit, have a high level of mathematical skill and a love for precision and detail.

Bricklaying standards are guidelines and specifications that ensure the quality and safety of bricklaying work. These standards are often established by industry organizations, regulatory bodies, or national building codes. While specific standards may vary by region, some core bricklaying standards include:

Building Codes: Compliance with local building codes is essential. These codes provide regulations for construction practices, including specifications for masonry work. Bricklayers must adhere to the building codes relevant to the specific location of the construction project.

ASTM International Standards: ASTM International (formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials) develops and publishes technical standards for various industries, including construction. ASTM standards related to bricklaying cover materials, testing procedures, and construction practices.

Masonry Construction Standards: Organizations like the Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) in the United States publish standards specifically focused on masonry construction. These standards address topics such as mortar, grout, reinforcement, and structural design considerations.

Quality Control: Standards related to quality control in bricklaying include specifications for mortar mixtures, proper curing of masonry, and guidelines for inspecting finished work. Adherence to these standards helps ensure the durability and longevity of the masonry construction.

Safety Standards: Occupational safety standards, such as those outlined by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, are critical for protecting workers on construction sites. These standards cover aspects like fall protection, scaffolding safety, and the proper use of personal protective equipment.

Brick and Block Standards: Standards related to the dimensions, composition, and properties of bricks and concrete blocks are important for achieving structural integrity. These standards specify characteristics such as compressive strength, absorption, and dimensional tolerances.

Construction Tolerances: Tolerances dictate acceptable variations in dimensions and alignments in bricklaying work. These standards help ensure that the finished structure meets design specifications and industry-accepted tolerances.

Testing and Inspection: Standards related to the testing and inspection of masonry work help verify that construction meets specified requirements. This includes procedures for mortar testing, grout testing, and overall quality inspections.

It’s important for bricklayers and construction professionals to be aware of and follow these standards to guarantee the safety, quality, and compliance of their work. Additionally, staying informed about updates to industry standards is crucial as they may evolve over time to reflect advancements in materials, techniques, and safety practices.

St. Olaf College | Dakota County Minnesota

International Building Code Chapter 21: Masonry

Masonry

Harvard University Dormitory Room | Smithsonian Museum | Thomas Warren Sears Collection

Today we sort through the best practice literature for designing and building education settlements with brick — the world’s oldest construction material. Masonry is a term used to describe the construction of structures using individual units that are bound together with mortar. Brickwork is a specific type of masonry that involves the use of bricks as the primary building units.

We use the terms interchangeably reflecting vernacular use in the literature. Brickwork in building construction lies in its ability to provide structural strength, fire resistance, thermal and sound insulation, aesthetic appeal, low maintenance, environmental friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and versatility.

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The genius of bricklayers on view here. A wonderfully ornamental effect is achieved almost entirely through ingeniously combining 228*108*54mm cuboids of baked mud. No sculpted mouldings, no fine imported materials, just brilliant and thoughtful craftmanship. pic.twitter.com/KxZw2HmFLD

— Samuel Hughes (@SCP_Hughes) October 19, 2023

Masonry is a construction technique that involves the use of individual units, typically made of materials like brick, stone, concrete blocks, or clay tiles, which are bound together with mortar to create walls, columns, or other structural elements. Masonry has been used for thousands of years and remains a popular method for building various structures, including houses, commercial buildings, bridges, and more.

The key components of masonry construction are:

Masonry Units: These are the individual building blocks or pieces, such as bricks or stones, that form the structure. They come in various shapes, sizes, and materials, depending on the specific requirements of the project.
Mortar: Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand, and water that is used to bind the masonry units together. It acts as both an adhesive and a filler between the units, providing strength and stability to the structure.
Masonry Workmanship: Skilled craftsmen, known as masons, are responsible for arranging and securing the masonry units with mortar. Their expertise ensures the structural integrity and aesthetic quality of the finished product.

Masonry construction offers several advantages:

Durability: Masonry structures are known for their longevity and resistance to fire, weather, and pests.
Aesthetic Appeal: Masonry can be used to create intricate designs and patterns, making it a popular choice for architectural and decorative elements.
Energy Efficiency: Masonry walls have good thermal mass, which can help regulate indoor temperatures and reduce energy costs.
Low Maintenance: Masonry structures typically require minimal maintenance over the years.

Masonry can be categorized into different types based on the materials and methods used. Some common forms of masonry include:

Brick Masonry: This involves using clay or concrete bricks to build walls and structures. It is widely used in residential and commercial construction.
Stone Masonry: Natural stones, such as granite, limestone, and slate, are used to create walls and structures in this type of masonry. It’s often used for historical or architectural projects.
Concrete Block Masonry: Concrete blocks are used to construct walls in this form of masonry, and it’s commonly seen in industrial and commercial buildings.
Reinforced Masonry: Steel reinforcement is incorporated into masonry walls to enhance structural strength.

Masonry is a versatile construction method that can be used in various applications, and it continues to be a fundamental part of the construction industry.

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College of West Anglia: Bricklayer Apprenticeship

North Carolina State University Industry Expansion Solutions: Fireplace & Chimney Safety

Salt Lake Community College: Brick Mason

Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Fall Protection

Athletics facilities upgrades: $390 Million

Program Title Page

OSU was founded in 1890 as Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College under the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 set in motion by President Abraham Lincoln. It has approximately 30,000 students across 1500 acres with 400 buildings. Its athletic department runs an operating budget of about $100 million.

Facilities Management

Standards Oklahoma

Orange Crush Couples

Fenestration

The oldest door still in use in Pantheon (115 A.D.)

“No work of art can be great,

if it is not composed of the smallest things.”

— Vitruvius (Book VII, Chapter 9)

Today we sweep through standards action in building glazing, entrances and means of egress. The word fenestration (Latin: fenestra) has become a term of art for the design, construction, and placement of openings in a building, including windows, doors, skylights, and other glazed elements. While the word has sparse use in the International Code Council and National Fire Protection Association catalog it is widely used by the Construction Specifications Institute in its MasterFormat system for organizing construction standards, guidelines and building contracts.

The percentage of a building envelope “skin” that is comprised of doors and windows varies depending on the specific building design, function, and location. However, a commonly cited range is between 15% to 25% of the total building envelope. The actual percentage will depend on several factors such as the building’s purpose, orientation, local climate, and energy performance goals. Buildings that require more natural light or ventilation, such as schools, hospitals, and offices, may have a higher percentage of windows and doors in their envelope. In contrast, buildings with lower lighting and ventilation requirements, such as warehouses, may have a smaller percentage of windows and doors.

Fenestration presents elevated risk to facility managers. The education facility industry is a large target and a pattern of settling out of court. For example:

In 2013, a former student at Yale University sued the school over a broken window in her dorm room. The student alleged that the university was negligent in failing to repair the window, which allowed a burglar to enter her room and sexually assault her. The case was settled out of court in 2015 for an undisclosed amount.
In 2019, a student at the University of California, Los Angeles sued the school over a broken window in her apartment. The student alleged that the university was negligent in failing to repair the window, which allowed a swarm of bees to enter her apartment and sting her. The case was settled out of court for $4.5 million.
In 2020, a group of students at Harvard University sued the school over its decision to require them to move out of their dorms due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The students alleged that the university breached its contract with them by failing to provide suitable alternative housing, including functioning windows and doors. (The case is ongoing; best we can tell as of the date of this post).

These cases illustrate that colleges and universities can face legal action related to doors and windows, either due to alleged negligence in maintaining or repairing them, or due to issues related to student housing and accommodations.

Our inquiry breaks down into two modules at the moment:

Exterior facing fenestration

Interior window walls and doors

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door (n.)

University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Means of Egress

Life Safety Code

Rijksuniversiteit Groningen

pic.twitter.com/frxfwHnD3d

— Ramin Nasibov (@RaminNasibov) May 25, 2024

Doors, windows and curtain walling

Scope: Standardization in the field of doors, doorsets, windows, and curtain wall including hardware, manufactured from any suitable material covering the specific performance requirements, terminology, manufacturing sizes and dimensions, and methods of test. The Japanese Engineering Standards Committee is the Global Secretariat.

ISO-TC 162 Work Programme

Multinational manufacturing and trade in the door manufacturing industry involve the production, distribution, and sale of doors across international borders. This industry encompasses a wide range of door types, including residential, commercial, industrial, and specialty doors. Here are some of the key fine points to consider in multinational manufacturing and trade within the door manufacturing sector:

Global Supply Chains:
- Multinational door manufacturers often have complex global supply chains. Raw materials, components, and finished products may be sourced from various countries to optimize costs and quality.
Regulatory Compliance:
- Compliance with international trade regulations and standards is crucial. This includes adhering to import/export laws, product safety regulations, and quality standards, such as ISO certifications.
Market Segmentation:
- Different regions and countries may have varying preferences for door types, materials, and styles. Multinational manufacturers need to adapt their product offerings to meet local market demands.
Distribution Networks:
- Establishing efficient distribution networks is essential. This involves selecting appropriate distribution channels, including wholesalers, retailers, and e-commerce platforms, in different countries.
Tariffs and Trade Barriers:
- Import tariffs and trade barriers can significantly impact the cost of doing business across borders. Understanding and navigating these trade policies is essential for multinational door manufacturers.
Localization:
- Multinational manufacturers often localize their products to suit the preferences and requirements of specific markets. This may involve language translation, customization of door designs, or adjustments to product dimensions.
Quality Control:
- Ensuring consistent product quality across borders is critical for maintaining brand reputation. Implementing quality control processes and standards at all manufacturing locations is essential.
Cultural Considerations:
- Understanding cultural nuances and local customs can help multinational manufacturers market their products effectively and build strong customer relationships.
Logistics and Transportation:
- Efficient logistics and transportation management are essential for timely delivery of doors to international markets. This includes selecting appropriate shipping methods and managing inventory efficiently.
Sustainability:
- Sustainability concerns, such as environmental impact and responsible sourcing of materials, are becoming increasingly important in the door manufacturing industry. Multinational manufacturers may need to comply with different environmental regulations in various countries.
Intellectual Property:
- Protecting intellectual property, including patents and trademarks, is crucial in a global market. Manufacturers must be vigilant against counterfeiting and IP infringement.
Market Research:
- Conducting thorough market research in each target country is essential. This includes understanding local competition, pricing dynamics, and consumer preferences.
Risk Management:
- Multinational manufacturing and trade involve various risks, including currency fluctuations, political instability, and supply chain disruptions. Implementing risk mitigation strategies is vital for long-term success.

In summary, multinational manufacturing and trade in the door manufacturing industry require a comprehensive understanding of global markets, regulatory compliance, cultural differences, and logistics. Successfully navigating these complexities can help manufacturers expand their reach and compete effectively in a globalized world.

Relevant agencies:

ASTM International: ASTM develops and publishes voluntary consensus standards used in various industries, including construction. ASTM standards cover materials, testing procedures, and specifications related to doors, windows, and associated components.

National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC): NFRC is a U.S.-based organization that focuses on rating and certifying the energy performance of windows, doors, and skylights. They provide performance ratings and labels used by manufacturers to communicate product energy efficiency to consumers.

American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA): AAMA is a U.S.-based organization that develops standards and specifications for windows, doors, and curtain walls. Their standards cover performance, design, and testing.

National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS): NIBS is involved in research, education, and the development of standards for the building and construction industry in the United States.