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Structures
Today we examine best practice literature for education building structures developed by accredited and consortia standards developers such as ASCE, ACI, AISC, ASTM, AWS, CRSI, ICC, NFPA and IEEE. The US education industry among the top three largest building construction markets; with annual new and renovated building construction running close to $100 billion annually.
We limit our coverage to low-risk regions in the US, such as areas with minimal seismic activity, low risk of flooding and moderate weather conditions. Another huge topic which we will likely break up into separate modules in the fullness of time. For now, we sweep through the basics:
Foundation
- Site Analysis:
- Conduct soil testing to determine its bearing capacity and composition.
- Ensure the site is properly graded and drained to prevent water accumulation.
- Foundation Type:
- Slab-on-Grade: Common in residential buildings. A concrete slab is poured directly on the ground.
- Basement: Provides additional living space and storage, common in residential buildings.
- Design and Preparation:
- Use rebar reinforcement to strengthen the concrete.
- Install vapor barriers to prevent moisture from seeping through the foundation.
- Properly compact the soil to prevent settling and shifting.
- Concrete Pouring:
- Use high-quality concrete mix suitable for the local climate.
- Ensure proper curing of the concrete to achieve maximum strength.
- Use expansion joints to accommodate temperature changes and prevent cracking.
- Waterproofing and Insulation:
- Apply waterproofing membranes or coatings to protect the foundation from water damage.
- Insulate the foundation to improve energy efficiency and prevent frost heave in colder climates.
Ironwork
- Materials:
- Use high-quality steel that meets industry standards (e.g., ASTM specifications).
- Ensure the steel is properly treated to resist corrosion, especially in humid or coastal areas.
- Design:
- Follow structural engineering guidelines and building codes for the specific type of building.
- Use appropriate load calculations to determine the size and placement of steel beams, columns, and reinforcements.
- Fabrication and Assembly:
- Ensure precision in cutting, welding, and assembling steel components.
- Use certified welders and follow welding standards (e.g., AWS D1.1/D1.1M).
- Pre-fabricate components where possible to ensure quality control and reduce on-site labor.
- Erection:
- Use proper lifting equipment and techniques to safely erect steel structures.
- Align and level steel components accurately before final fastening.
- Use bolted connections where possible for ease of assembly and future maintenance.
- Inspection and Quality Control:
- Conduct regular inspections throughout the construction process to ensure compliance with design specifications and building codes.
- Perform non-destructive testing (e.g., ultrasonic testing) on critical welds and connections.
- Protective Coatings:
- Apply protective coatings (e.g., galvanization, epoxy paint) to steel components to prevent corrosion.
- Maintain the protective coatings over the lifespan of the building.
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Related:
Post 9-11 Standards
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center, U.S. standards developers — the International Code Council (ICC) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) topmost among them — responded with revisions to technical standards based on thirty findings of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). These changes aimed to enhance structural integrity, fire safety, and evacuation procedures in high-rise buildings.
Increased Structural Robustness: Codes were updated to improve resistance to progressive collapse, where the failure of one structural element spreads to others. This included increasing the minimum thickness of steel beams and columns and adding more connections between structural elements.
Concrete Reinforcement: Structures like One World Trade Center adopted reinforced concrete cores and thicker structural elements to withstand extreme events.
Fire SafetyEnhanced Fire Resistance: Higher standards for fire-resistant materials were introduced, including mandates for fire sprinklers and smoke alarms in high-rise buildings.
Fire Protection Systems: Improved requirements for active fire protection systems, such as sprinklers, to mitigate fire spread.
Egress and EvacuationElevator Requirements: Elevators are now required in high-rise buildings over 120 feet tall to aid firefighters in accessing upper floors without climbing stairs with heavy equipment.
Additional Stairways: High-rises over 420 feet must include an extra stairway to ensure multiple egress paths.
Exit Path Markings: Self-luminous or photoluminescent exit path markings were mandated to guide occupants to exits during low-visibility emergencies, applied to both new and existing high-rise buildings.
Increased Exit Spacing: Exit enclosures must be spaced farther apart to prevent a single event, like a fire, from blocking multiple exits.
Emergency Communication and PreparednessImproved Communication Systems: Codes now require better communication systems for emergency responders to coordinate during crises, addressing the breakdown in communication during 9/11.
Evacuation Procedures: Elevators can now be used for evacuation in some fire scenarios, a shift from the traditional reliance on stairs, improving evacuation efficiency.
Blast-Resistant Features: Designs for high-profile buildings, like One World Trade Center, incorporated blast-resistant bases (e.g., a 185-foot concrete base) to protect against street-level attacks.
Changes were debated to balance safety with construction costs, with some measures (like exit markings) having minimal cost but significant benefits. Not all proposals were adopted due to cost concerns or feasibility, but they spurred further structural design advancements. These changes reflect a shift toward designing buildings to withstand extreme, unpredictable events like terrorist attacks, beyond traditional natural disaster scenarios.
Our work in the NFPA catalog | Our work in the ICC catalog | Our work in the ASCE catalog
Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures
NOAA National Weather Service: Storm Total Maps and Verification
ASCE Codes & Standards Catalog
Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee
Code and Standards Open for Comment
Public Comment for ASCE/EWRI 78-XX Guidelines for the Physical Security of Water and Wastewater/Stormwater Utilities (Comment Deadline 12/18/2023)
America’s Infrastructure Score: C-
CLICK IMAGE
Secure perimeter management
Annual Financial Reports | Facilities & Planning | UVU Police Department
Core Concepts for Crowd Security
Vigilant crowd monitoring. Continuous oversight to detect and address potential risks in student assemblies.
Layered access controls. Multi-tiered entry points to regulate flow and prevent unauthorized intrusions during events.
Trained security patrols. Dedicated teams circulating through crowds to ensure order and quick response.
Emergency egress protocols. Clear pathways and drills for safe evacuation from congested areas.
Threat assessment teams. Proactive evaluation of crowd dynamics to identify and mitigate hazards.
Visible deterrence measures. Uniformed personnel and signage to promote compliance in high-traffic zones.
Incident response readiness. Coordinated plans for handling disruptions in student gatherings.
Secure perimeter management. Fortified boundaries to contain and protect crowds on campus grounds.
Crowd flow optimization. Strategic routing to avoid bottlenecks in hallways or event spaces.
Community safety culture. Fostering awareness and participation among students for collective security.
Our coverage of relevant standards:
Michigan Wine
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Zoning
2021 International Wildland-Urban Interface Code
International Code Council: 2024 Group A Proposed Changes
ISO 37101 Sustainable development in communities
“The Architect’s Dream” 1840 Thomas Cole
Today we examine the catalog of several ANSI-accredited, consortia and ad hoc standard developers with titles relevant to the planning, construction and management of the built environment of education communities nested within human settlements characterized by a high population density, extensive infrastructure, and various economic, social, and cultural activities. In other words, from the point of view of a campus as a “city within a city” with attention to infrastructure.
Several organizations and bodies in the United States that develop model codes and standards related to zoning and land use. These model codes and standards are often adopted or referenced by municipalities in their zoning ordinances. Here are some prominent organizations and their model codes:
American Institute of Architects
AIA Handbook of Professional Practice 15th Edition
American Planning Association
American Society of Civil Engineers
Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures
American Society of Landscape Architects
Sustainable Sites Initiative Rating System
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
Optimization of Transmission Line Right-of-Way
Diminishing the Right of Way (RoW) With Multi Voltage Multi Terminal Transmission Tower
Information System for the Vegetation Control of Transmission Lines Right-of-way
Partially underground transmission circuits: safety issue for current and future power systems
International Code Council
International Standardization Organization
National Fire Protection Association
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Each of the foregoing titles have some bearing upon decisions about land use. However, keep in mind, that zoning regulations are primarily established at the local level by municipalities, cities, and counties, rather than through national standard bodes. These organizations and their codes provide guidance and best practices for zoning, but specific regulations can vary significantly between different jurisdictions. They are frequently incorporated by reference into regulations by governments at all levels.
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Here are some community colleges in the United States that are embedded within cities, offering students the advantages of an urban setting:
- City College of San Francisco – San Francisco, California
- Los Angeles City College – Los Angeles, California
- Borough of Manhattan Community College – New York, New York
- Miami Dade College – Wolfson Campus – Miami, Florida
- City College of Chicago – Chicago, Illinois
- Seattle Central College – Seattle, Washington
- Austin Community College – Rio Grande Campus – Austin, Texas
- Houston Community College – Central Campus – Houston, Texas
- San Antonio College – San Antonio, Texas
- Portland Community College – Cascade Campus – Portland, Oregon
- Washtenaw Community College – Ann Arbor-Ypsilanti, Michigan
These community colleges not only provide access to higher education but also offer the benefits of being located within major urban centers, including proximity to job markets, cultural institutions, and public transportation.
Top Deck View
University of Bath: Department of Estates
*After the Roman period, Bath remained a small town until the 18th century, when it became a fashionable spa destination for the wealthy. The architect John Wood the Elder designed much of the city’s Georgian architecture, including the famous Royal Crescent and the Circus. Bath also played an important role in the English literary scene, as several famous authors, including Jane Austen, lived and wrote in the city. During the 19th century, Bath’s popularity declined as other spa towns became fashionable. In the 20th century, the city experienced significant redevelopment and preservation efforts, including the restoration of its Roman baths and the construction of a new spa complex.
Today, Bath is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a popular tourist destination known for its historical and cultural significance.
Geomatics
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“Midvinterblot” | Carl Larsson (1853-1919)
The Swedish Standards Institute for Standards is the Global Secretariat for ISO TC/211 which leads standardization in the field of digital geographic information. Standardization titles developed by this committee aims to establish a structured set of standards for information concerning objects or phenomena that are directly or indirectly associated with a location relative to the Earth. These standards may specify, for geographic information, methods, tools and services for data management (including definition and description), acquiring, processing, analyzing, accessing, presenting and transferring such data in digital / electronic form between different users, systems and locations.
The United States Technical Advisory Group Administrator on behalf of ANSI is the InterNational Committee for Information Technology Standards. CLICK HERE for more information.
We maintain all ISO projects on the standing agenda of our Global and ICT colloquia which are open to everyone. You may communicate with Jennifer Garner (jgarner@itic.org) if you wish to participate in standards-setting activity from the United States point of view. Keep in mind that our network of education communities outside the United States is significant and long-standing.
Issue: [16-141]
Category: Global, Information & Communications Technology
Colleagues: Mike Anthony, Jim Harvey, Jack Janveja, Richard Robben
New update alert! The 2022 update to the Trademark Assignment Dataset is now available online. Find 1.29 million trademark assignments, involving 2.28 million unique trademark properties issued by the USPTO between March 1952 and January 2023: https://t.co/njrDAbSpwB pic.twitter.com/GkAXrHoQ9T
— USPTO (@uspto) July 13, 2023
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